CAPACITOR USE
All specifications in this catalog and production status of products are subject to change without notice. Prior to the purchase, please contact NEC Tokin for updated product data.
Please request for a specification sheet for detailed product data prior to the purchase.
Before using the product in this catalog, please read “Precautions” and other safety precautions listed in the printed version catalog.
2006.03.24 P0622EDTM01VOL02E
2
Correct Use of Tantalum Chip Capacitors
Be sure to read this before using NEC TOKIN Tantalum Capacitors.
[Notes]
Be sure to read "PRECAUTIONS FOR TANTALUM CAPACITOR USE" (p56 - p66) before commencing
circuit design or using the capacitor.
Confirm the usage conditions and rated performance of the capacitor before use.
Ninety percent of the failure that occurs in this capacitor is caused by an increase in leakage current or
short-circuiting. It is therefore important to make sufficient allowances for redundant wiring in the circuit
design.
[Quality Grades]
NEC TOKIN devices are classified into the following quality grades in accordance with their application. The
quality grade of all devices in this document is "standard"; the devices in this document cannot be used for
"special" or "specific" quality grade applications. Customers who intend to use a product or products in this
document for applications other than those specified under the "standard" quality grade must contact NEC
TOKIN sales representative in advance.
Standard: This quality grade is intended for applications in which failure or malfunction of the device is
highly unlikely to cause harm to persons or damage to property, or be the source of any negative effects
or problems in the wider community.
Special: This quality grade is intended for special applications that have common requirements, such
specific industrial fields. Devices with a "special" quality grade are designed, manufactured, and tested
using a more stringent quality assurance program than that used for "standard" grade devices. There is
a high possibility that failure or malfunction of the device when being used for applications in this category
will cause harm to persons or damage to property, or create negative effects or problems in the wider
community.
Specific: Devices with a "specific" quality grade are designed, manufactured, and tested using a quality
assurance program that is designated by the customer or that is created in accordance with the customer's
specifications. There is an extremely high possibility that failure or malfunction of the device when being
used for applications in this category will cause harm to persons or damage to property, or create serious
problems in the wider community. Customers who use NEC TOKIN's products for these "specific"
applications must conclude an individual quality agreement and/or development agreement with NEC
TOKIN. A quality assurance program designated by the customer must also be determined in advance.
CAPACITORS DATA BOOK 2005
•All specifications in this catalog and production status of products are subject to change without notice. Prior to the purchase, please contact NEC Tokin for updated product data.
•Please request for a specification sheet for detailed product data prior to the purchase.
•Before using the product in this catalog, please read “Precautions” and other safety precautions listed in the printed version catalog.
2006.03.24 P0622EDTM01VOL02E
2
Correct Use of Tantalum Chip Capacitors
Be sure to read this before using NEC TOKIN Tantalum Capacitors.
[Notes]
● Be sure to read "PRECAUTIONS FOR TANTALUM CAPACITOR USE" (p56 - p66) before commencing
circuit design or using the capacitor.
● Confirm the usage conditions and rated performance of the capacitor before use.
● Ninety percent of the failure that occurs in this capacitor is caused by an increase in leakage current or
short-circuiting. It is therefore important to make sufficient allowances for redundant wiring in the circuit
design.
[Quality Grades]
NEC TOKIN devices are classified into the following quality grades in accordance with their application. The
quality grade of all devices in this document is "standard"; the devices in this document cannot be used for
"special" or "specific" quality grade applications. Customers who intend to use a product or products in this
document for applications other than those specified under the "standard" quality grade must contact NEC
TOKIN sales representative in advance.
● Standard: This quality grade is intended for applications in which failure or malfunction of the device is
highly unlikely to cause harm to persons or damage to property, or be the source of any negative effects
or problems in the wider community.
● Special: This quality grade is intended for special applications that have common requirements, such
specific industrial fields. Devices with a "special" quality grade are designed, manufactured, and tested
using a more stringent quality assurance program than that used for "standard" grade devices. There is
a high possibility that failure or malfunction of the device when being used for applications in this category
will cause harm to persons or damage to property, or create negative effects or problems in the wider
community.
● Specific: Devices with a "specific" quality grade are designed, manufactured, and tested using a quality
assurance program that is designated by the customer or that is created in accordance with the customer's
specifications. There is an extremely high possibility that failure or malfunction of the device when being
used for applications in this category will cause harm to persons or damage to property, or create serious
problems in the wider community. Customers who use NEC TOKIN's products for these "specific"
applications must conclude an individual quality agreement and/or development agreement with NEC
TOKIN. A quality assurance program designated by the customer must also be determined in advance.
Voyager Company CD-ROMs
Voyager Company CD-ROMs:
Production History and Preservation Challenges of Commercial Interactive
Media
By Jeff Martin
During the early to mid-1990s, the heyday of the commercially produced
interactive CD-ROM, some of the most widely praised and best-selling titles were
released by Voyager Company (in operation from 1984 to 1997). Voyager’s
pioneering titles displayed a consistent level of innovation and creative design
combined with intelligent content—the best of what the format had to offer
1
. For
these reasons, Voyager’s output is of particular value to historians and
preservationists of digital media. Yet, like all digital media, Voyager CD-ROMs
have faced rapid preservation challenges due to operating system and software
obsolescence. This paper will look at Voyager’s corporate history and
programming practice and propose an approach to the preservation of its titles.
Corporate History
The Voyager Company was founded in 1984 by Bob Stein and three other
partners, including Aleen Stein, Bob’s wife. Voyager first made a splash in the
mid-1980s with its Criterion Collection laser discs: high-quality transfers of classic
films that generally included extras like commentary tracks, still galleries, and
trailers—all the features that would later help make DVDs such a successful
consumer product. Its first laser disc release, in 1984, was King Kong (1933).
2
1
Stein, the driving force behind the company, described himself as a Maoist and
publicly refused to pursue profit over quality. He also established the company’s
motto, “Bring Your Brain.” 3 The New York Times described Voyager as “the
single best source of stimulating and innovative titles for grown-ups.”
4
Voyager’s first CD-ROM, released in 1989, was the CD Companion to
Beethoven’s Symphony No. 9, which brought together a reproduction of the
symphony’s printed score, an audio recording by the Vienna Philharmonic, and
commentary. It was the first of several music-based titles Voyager produced.
Throughout its thirteen-year history, Voyager used the book as the model for
most of its titles. Colin Holgate, a programmer who worked for Voyager between
1992 and 1996, described the company’s popular CD-ROM version of the
Beatles film A Hard Day’s Night as “a coffee table book with the movie
attached.”
5 Many titles were based on literary works, including Arthur Miller’s
play The Crucible and Art Spiegelman’s graphic novel Maus. [
The company’s focus on book-structured titles was furthered in 1993, when it
released software that allowed consumers to create their own electronic books.
The software, called Expanded Book Toolkit, retailed for less than $300 and gave
consumers the capability to add search engines, art, sound, and QuickTime
movies to text files, creating floppy disks that emulated the company’s CDROMs6
. Also in 1993, Voyager joined with other CD-ROM producers to sell their
CD-ROMs in bookstores—another sign of the company’s view that the new
technology could be equated with books. At the time, Stein said:
2
The best bookstores are wonderful places to browse a wide
selection of works and typically provide a high level of customer
service. We wanted to bring that comfort, selection of works, and
service to the buyer of interactive software. It makes sense
because these products are as much like books as they are like
software, and the shopping experience should be similar.
7
In addition to their book-based titles, Voyager also released more experimental
and nonlinear projects, including CD-ROM titles such as Laurie Anderson’s
Puppet Motel, The Residents’ Freak Show, and composer Morton Subotnick’s All
My Hummingbirds Have Alibis. In 1996, Voyager released First Person: Mumia
Abu-Jamal Live from Death Row, which highlighted the case of the Pennsylvania
man sentenced to death for a crime that many believe he did not commit. The
title was created—from start to finish—in five weeks.8 A company press
released stated: “Voyager is proud to present such a significant voice on issues
of great immediacy and relevance.”
9
The Abu-Jamal title was not the only Voyager product to court controversy. In
1995, a minor storm erupted because Voyager’s CD-ROM Who Built America?—
which touched on such topics as homosexuality, abortion, and birth control—was
bundled with other software installed on Apple computers that were distributed to
schools. After being dropped briefly, the title was eventually restored to the
bundle.
10
3
By 1996, despite its continued high profile, Voyager’s revenues had stagnated
and the company was consistently in debt. Several reasons were listed for the
company’s financial problems:
Stein set out his own plan of action in late September of 1996,
identifying intermediate and long-term objectives. Key obstacles to
wider CD-Rom acceptance he listed as being fivefold: insufficient
market volume of non-game titles; Apple’s chronic failure to
upgrade HyperCard (the staple software on which Voyager became
over-dependent); poor distribution for anything but games and
children’s titles; the lure of the Internet, which captured much of the
free time people were prepared to devote to electronic browsing;
and, finally, the fact that “the desktop is not a conducive
environment for using the rich titles that Voyager is known for
producing”.
11
Bob Stein left the company in late 1996. Today he is the C.E.O. of Night Kitchen,
which he founded shortly after leaving Voyager. He is also on the board of The
Institute for the Future of the Book, which describes its mission as “to play an
important role in developing the form and function of books in the digital era.”
12
Programming Practices
In terms of approaching the preservation questions presented by Voyager titles,
the single most useful part of my research was a telephone interview with Colin
Holgate. The titles he programmed for Voyager include This Is Spinal Tap, The
Day After Trinity, The Annotated Alice, and Our Secret Century (for which twelve
volumes were produced and ten were released before Voyager shut down in
1997.) I found the following information—provided by Holgate in our telephone
conversation—relevant to the discussion of CD-ROM preservation:
4
• Software Choices
Many Voyager titles—including nearly all the book-based titles—
were programmed using the Apple software HyperCard. Voyager
was one of the earliest adopters of this software, working with
Apple as a Beta tester prior to the software’s introduction in August
1987. The choice was logical; HyperCard, modeled around the idea
of a stack of cards, closely emulated the behavior of a book.
Unfortunately, Microsoft offered no programs with similar
capabilities for PCs, so Voyager titles using HyperCard were
programmed on Apple computers and then farmed out to a
subcontractor to reprogram the cross-platform version for PC. (For
this reason, I would argue that future preservation of Voyager titles
should be focused on their original Mac programming for use on
Mac machines—assuming, that is, that Mac computers will remain
available as such!)
Holgate did use other programs for certain cases. Our Secret
Century needed to be programmed cross-platform from the
beginning, so he used Oracle Media Objects; C was the best way
to manipulate all of the visual elements for This Is Spinal Tap.
• System Requirements
5
In determining the system requirements for Voyager titles,
programmers were constrained by two factors: first, many of their
CD-ROMs were considered to be educational, or at the very least,
“edu-tainment.” The general perception was that computers in the
academic world, such as those in high-school computer labs, would
be less sophisticated than those in the home or office markets.
Second, because Voyager had a tight budget, programmers were
working on relatively outdated machines. For example, Holgate
programmed A Hard Day’s Night (1993) on a Mac IIsi, with a 20
MHz processor and 17 MB RAM—a computer first released in 1990
and discontinued the year the CD-ROM was produced. The general
feeling, said Holgate, was that if the titles worked well on Voyager’s
computers, they’d work well on anyone’s.
• Forward Compatibility
Then, as now, the issue of forward compatibility was nearly
impossible to consider—there was simply no way to know what
software and hardware manufacturers were going to do. In
particular, Holgate said, there was no way to know that HyperCard,
a program launched with great fanfare, would be completely
abandoned by Apple relatively soon after its introduction.
• Archiving of Elements
6
The critical variable in Voyager’s archiving of elements was storage
space. Programmers were generally assigned 1GB hard drives to
hold all of the elements relevant to a project—which seemed
sufficient at the time because, as Holgate put it, “the whole thing
couldn’t be more than? 650 MB anyway.” Since many Voyager
titles were based on laser discs, the video elements used in CDROM
production were generally available if needed. Holgate also
mentioned discussions in which producers said, “Let’s keep this
240x480 uncompressed as a backup in case we ever need to
remaster,” though today a file of that size would not be considered
a master video element.
• Preservation of Code
Perhaps the single most surprising—and heartening—fact I learned
from speaking to Holgate is that he practiced his own means of
preserving and ensuring the accessibility of the code for the CDROMs
he programmed by including it on the “shipped discs”—the
CDs actually sold to the public. This means that even for the least
popular Voyager CD-ROMs, thousands of copies of the underlying
code still exist.
Current Disc Performance
The first Voyager title I reviewed (Our Secret Century), was, happily, still
functioning reasonably well with current Mac operating systems. A return to the
7
Voyager catalogue revealed that this was not necessarily true for all titles, as
demonstrated by the following four examples.
TITLE: Exotic Japan
DATE OF MANUFACTURE: 1991
SOFTWARE SUPPLIED: MacroMind Player 2.0.1
FILES: 29 files, type unidentified. SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS: Macintosh
(Classic, Plus, Portable, LC, SE, or II series); Mac OS 6.0.5 or higher;
HyperCard version 2.1
CURRENT PERFORMANCE:
MAC OS 8.5.1: HyperCard visuals work properly. Audio, however, plays
completely randomly. Links to play audio do not work. Appears to play
straight through all audio clips on the CD-ROM rather than respond to
mouse clicks.
MAC OS X: HyperCard works in Classic Mode—images only. Much
distortion/displacement of text against backgrounds. Two icons appear on
desktop: “Exotic Japan” and “Audio CD.” Audio CD contains one 47:00
track that plays fine and one 5:29 track that iTunes does not recognize.
TITLE: All My Hummingbirds Have Alibis
DATE OF MANUFACTURE: 1992
SOFTWARE SUPPLIED: MacroMind Player 3.0
8
FILES: 17 files, type unidentified. SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS: Mac OS 6.0.7 or
higher; 13-inch color or grayscale monitor; Mac-compatible CD-ROM
drive; headphones/speakers; CD-ROM Drivers
CURRENT PERFORMANCE:
MAC OS 8.5.1: Starting program, desktop is still visible behind display
window. Program does not function properly and eventually crashes
computer.
MAC OS X: Two icons appear on desktop: “Hummingbirds” and “Audio
CD.” Error message: “Not enough memory to run MacroMind Player.”
Audio CD files will play in iTunes. “Hummingbird” files will not play.
TITLE: Stravinsky’s “The Rite of Spring”
DATE OF MANUFACTURE: 1992
SOFTWARE SUPPLIED: HyperCard 2.1
FILES: 4 HyperCard documents
SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS: Mac OS 6.0.5 or higher
CURRENT PERFORMANCE:
MAC OS 8.5.1: HyperCard program works well; some distortion of fonts
(overlap). Audio plays properly in conjunction with annotations in
HyperCard stacks only occasionally. When entire Stravinsky piece is
played through, annotation cards do not always follow in proper sequence.
MAC OS X: Ejected the CD repeatedly.
9
TITLE: Who Built America?
DATE OF MANUFACTURE: 1993
SOFTWARE SUPPLIED: QuickTime 1.6.1, HyperCard 2.1
SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS: Macintosh computer with a 68020 or higher
processor (as of summer 1993, this included the Macintosh SE/30, Classic
II, and all models in the Macintosh II, LC, Performa, Centris, and Quadra
lines, and Powerbook models 140 and higher, including all PowerBook
Duos); 4 MB of installed RAM in System 6, 5 MB of installed RAM in
System 7; a hard disk with 7 MB of free space—8 if you need to install
QuickTime and HyperCard; a 640x480 monitor or larger w/256 grays; Mac
OS 6.0.7 or higher
CURRENT PERFORMANCE:
MAC OS 8.5.1: No discernible problems. Appeared to function as
intended.
MAC OS X: Ran in Classic Mode. Changed display to 256 colors,
monochrome (sepia.) Could not find the “Home” document (repeatedly) for
HyperCard. Played most functions properly, though sometimes
inexplicably asked for more memory to be allocated to HyperCard, even
though it had been. Did not resize display to 640x480 automatically.
Overall performance good but finicky.
These four examples demonstrate that the early Voyager titles are in the greatest
danger of becoming inaccessible due to software and hardware obsolescence.
10
What is striking is the complete failure of the Exotic Japan CD-ROM compared to
the relatively good performance of Who Built America?, a title manufactured only
two years later.
Preservation Strategies
Based on my research, which included the discussion with Colin Holgate and the
testing of several Voyager CD-ROM titles, I offer the following observations
regarding preservation.
1) Code
Unlike certain interactive artworks, the code underlying Voyager titles is not part
of the work; it is a purely functional tool designed to achieve a desired end.
(Indeed, Colin described his code for This Is Spinal Tap, written in C, as “quite
ugly” when viewed on its own. For this reason, I believe emulation would be an
entirely appropriate means of preserving these titles. Any computer program that
can properly mimic the behavior of the original code—without having to retain the
code itself—would be sufficient.
2) HyperCard Emulator
A logical starting point for preserving these titles, therefore, would be the
development of a HyperCard emulator. Apple stopped updating HyperCard more
than a decade ago and stopped selling the program in 2004. Though HyperCard
will function on a computer using Mac OS X in Classic Mode, it is clearly a
11
program in danger in obsolescence. Because of its widespread use in CD-ROMs
and other applications, a reliable, widely available emulator program is critical to
the preservation of large quantities of digital media.
3) Behavior
Voyager CD-ROMs, which were structured to emulate books, are frequently
linear, with links that guide the user through a work in a straightforward fashion.
One critical component of this format that differs from books is the inclusion of
hypertext. Many book-based titles contain links from words or phrases to get
definitions or translations, or sound files to provide pronunciation guides, for
example. Links may also provide caption information for photos or larger versions
of thumbnail images. Although this behavior sounds similar to that of web pages,
CD-ROMs are self-contained products with clearly defined boundaries. The
content is always present on the CD-ROMs themselves—it simply needs to be
accessed properly.
4) Establishing Proper Behavior
Because they were designed to serve as self-contained products for the general
public, Voyager’s titles, like many commercially produced CD-ROMs, contain the
software necessary to run properly. One of the usually critical variables in digital
preservation—access to the proper legacy software—is therefore not as much of
an issue for Voyager’s catalogue. Also, again because of their commercial nature
and intended wide distribution, many Voyager titles include detailed, specific
12
system requirements and often, as mentioned above, their source code—a real
boon to potential preservation. These two facts point to a logical means of
establishing the proper behavior for Voyager’s titles: obtaining the appropriate
legacy computers. Admittedly, this approach poses challenges in terms of
accessing the archival machines, but as of this writing they are still available.
Ensuring the long-term preservation of these titles requires finding the right
computer on which to play them.
In addition to securing the appropriate machines to play the Voyager titles, I
recommend collecting and documenting information regarding proper behavior
from the original programmers themselves. Many of the Voyager programmers
are still involved in the digital-media industry, and any project seeking to preserve
Voyager titles for the future needs to bring this now-dispersed corporate memory
to the table. My own conversation with Colin Holgate made it very clear that
potentially confusing or unclear points could easily be resolved simply by working
with someone who was there at the beginning. This point may seem obvious, but
because of the difficulties in dealing with preserving digital media, many projects
end up with an exclusive focus on the objects themselves, unintentionally
forgetting to rely on the expertise of the people who created them.
Holgate also pointed me to another, more limited source of potential information
about behaviors. In the 1990s, Voyager produced demonstration videotapes of
their products in order to show off new titles in situations where CD-ROM drives
13
might not be available or computers might not be hooked up to projectors for
group display (this was necessary only a decade ago!). These videos, though
limited in scope, do provide a very accessible demonstration of how Voyager
titles behaved at the time of their introduction. Several of these videos are
currently available as Shockwave files on the Institute for the Future of the
Book13 website (www.futureofthebook.org).
CONCLUSION
Because of their critical role in developing the aesthetics and creative
possibilities of the CD-ROM, their overall high quality, and their relatively small
number, the titles in the Voyager catalogue provide an ideal opportunity for
further work in the field of CD-ROM preservation. It would truly be a shame if—
considering both their recent production and the impact they had on a nascent
industry—these pioneering titles were left to become inaccessible. Unfortunately,
this is a possibility that seems very likely if no further action is taken.
14
WORKS CITED
Abramovitch, Ingrid. “Radical Voyage,” Success, November, 1994, p. 25.
Herther, Nancy K. “Discovering CD-ROM: Hot Titles and Trends.” Database,
October/November 1996, p. 14.
Hilts, Paul. “Everyman’s Authoring Tool: Voyager’s Expanded Book Toolkit
Enables Production of Electronic Books with Multimedia on Floppy Disks.”
Publishers Weekly, March 1, 1993, p. 18.
Kafner, Katie and Adam Rogers. “How Now, Voyager?” Newsweek, October 9,
1995, p. 67–8.
Lewis, Peter H. “Disks for Mac: Voyager Still Leads.” The New York Times (Late
New York Edition), December 13, 1994, p. C14.
Phone interview with Colin Holgate, December 12, 2004.
“Multimedia Crucible from Penguin & Voyager.” Publishers Weekly, September
5, 1994, p. 24.
Pack, Thomas. “Bookstores Are Hot: CD-ROM Sections Are Not Yet!” CD-ROM
Professional, March 1995, p. 40.
Reid, Calvin. “A Maus That Roars.” Publishers Weekly, January 31, 1994, p. 26.
Snider, Mike. “Criterion: Nobody Does It Better; Its Innovations Set Bar for
DVDs.” USA Today, June 29, 2004, p. D5.
Trachtenberg, Jeffrey A. “U.S. History on a CD-ROM Stirs Up a Storm,” The Wall
Street Journal, February 10, 1995, p. B1.
Vickers, Graham. “Now Voyager.” Creative Review, February 1997, p. 38.
Virshup, Amy. “The Teachings of Bob Stein.” Wired 4.07 (1996); accessed
December 13, 2004, at http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/4.07/stein_pr.html.
Website: The Night Kitchen. Accessed December 14, 2004, at
http://www.nightkitchen.com/aboutnk/index.phtml.
Website: The Institute for the Future of the Book, Accessed December 14, 2004,
atwww.futureofthebook.org.
15
1 I can speak to this from personal experience. In the mid-1990s, during
Voyager’s most prolific years, I was working at a home-video company that was
trying to dip its toe into the CD-ROM waters. Voyager titles were always the ones
for which we sought advance copies. The programmers and producers would
gather around the computer to explore them and wonder why we weren’t doing
work of similar quality. 2 Snider, Mike. “Criterion: Nobody Does It Better; Its Innovations Set Bar for
DVDs.” USA Today, June 29, 2004, p. D5. 3 Kafner, Katie and Adam Rogers. “How Now, Voyager?” Newsweek, October 9,
1995, p. 67–8. 4 Lewis, Peter H. “Disks for Mac: Voyager Still Leads,” The New York Times
(Late New York Edition), December 13, 1994, p. C14. 5 Phone interview with Colin Holgate, December 12, 2004. 6 Hilts, Paul. “Everyman’s Authoring Tool: Voyager’s Expanded Book Toolkit
Enables Production of Electronic Books with Multimedia on Floppy Disks.”
Publishers Weekly, March 1, 1993, p. 18. As of December 14, 2004, the software
can still be downloaded from http://www.futureofthebook.org/tool/. 7 Pack, Thomas. “Bookstores Are Hot: CD-ROM Sections Are Not Yet!” CD-ROM
Professional, March 1995, p. 40. 8 Virshup, Amy. “The Teachings of Bob Stein.” Wired 4.07 (1996); accessed
December 13, 2004, at http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/4.07/stein_pr.html. 9 Herther, Nancy K. “Discovering CD-ROM: Hot Titles and Trends.” Database,
October/November 1996, p. 14. 10 Trachtenberg, Jeffrey A. “U.S. History On a CD-ROM Stirs Up a Storm,” The
Wall Street Journal, February 10, 1995, p. B1. 11 Vickers, Graham. “Now Voyager.” Creative Review, February 1997, p. 38. 12 Website, The Institute for the Future of the Book, Accessed December 14,
2004, at
http://www.futureofthebook.org/content/about/?PHPSESSID=a96a2c00aeaf77e6
e908ee8326b5c457. 13 www.futureofthebook.org.
Semiconductor Memory Timeline
Semiconductor Memory Timeline Notes
[JK / DL 10-25-06] – Updated DL 11.8.06
1960 - Semiconductor memory foreseen? (Fairchild)
The following quote from a Company Profile on Fairchild Semiconductor published
in Solid State Journal September/October 1960 shows how aware the founders were
of the importance of reducing memory size to the long term growth of their business.
But did they see the possibility of semiconductor memory as a solution?
“Even though the Fairchild concept (of Micrologic integrated circuits) brings these
computer elements in greatly reduced space, further reductions are still possible under
current techniques. However, until the reductions are possible in other portions of a
computer – especially the memory system – progress will be slower. There’s not too
much point for a “pea-sized” logic element and a “barrel-sized” memory system, is
the way the founders put it.”
\
SRAM 1961 - Bob Norman proposes integrated circuit memory (Fairchild)
According to Gordon Moore [“Fairchild Chronicles” interview], Bob Norman, the
applications engineer working with Jay Last’s Micrologic group, suggested that they
could build a solid state memory by putting multiple flip-flops on a single integrated
circuit chip. It was deemed impractical with the current state of technology.
\
\
SRAM 1961 - “A few hundred bits of semiconductor memory” shipped (TI)
From “Invention of the Integrated Circuit” by Jack Kilby
IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices Vol. ED-23, No.7, July1976, page 653
“In October of that year (1961) TI delivered to the Air Force a small working
computer complete with a few hundred bits of semiconductor memory, and
announced the Series 51.”
\
1965 – Moore predicts “memories built of integrated electronics”
In the 1965 article that first published “Moore’s Law,” Gordon Moore, Director,
Research and Development Laboratories, Fairchild Semiconductor, also predicted that
“Computers will be more powerful, and will be organized in completely different
ways. For example, memories built of integrated electronics may be distributed
throughout the machine instead of being concentrated in a central unit.”
[Electronics, Volume 38, Number 8, April 19, 1965]
\
SRAM 1965 - Monolithic Megabit Memory report (IBM)
Abstracted from: “To the Digital Age” by Rod Bassett page 103
Bob Heale (appointed an IBM Fellow in 1964) collaborated on a January 1965 report
“Potential for Monolithic Megabit Memories.” That month CD began a 16-bit
(bipolar) chip for use in the storage protect circuit of the high-end System/360. In
1967 IBM qualified a 64-bit chip used to implement a cache memory.
IBM introduced the16-bit bipolar memory chip in a System/360 Model 95 developed
for NASA in1966.
\
- 1 -
Ref: Bob Donlan and David Pricer, "Pushing the Limits: Looking Forward...Looking
Back," Microelectronic Design, Vol. 1. (1987).
\
SRAM 1966 – Honeywell 16-bit TTL memory (Transitron, et al)
A group led by Tom Longo created the first commercial multi-cell dedicated memory
chip when in 1966 Transitron developed a 16 bit SRAM chip using TTL technology
for Honeywell, Billerica, Mass for use as a minicomputer scratchpad memory. This
device was alternate sourced by several suppliers of TTL logic, including Fairchild
and TI.
See: Longo Transcript 8.14.06
\
\
DRAM 1966 – Single transistor DRAM Cell Invented (IBM)
The single transistor Dynamic Random Access Memory - DRAM memory cell was
invented by IBM researcher Robert Dennard as a simpler alternative to the earlier
multi-transistor SRAM memory cell.
Bio at:
http://domino.watson.ibm.com/comm/pr.nsf/pages/news.20050422_bobdennard.html
BUBBLE 1966 - Magnetic-bubble memories invented (Bell Labs)
Andrew Bobeck working with Richard C. Sherwood and Umberto F. Gianola used
semiconductor lithographic and deposition methods to build non-volatile magnetic
bubble memories of 4096-bit capacity in the mid-1960s. Intel introduced a1Megabit
device in xxx. Their promise dimmed with the development of faster, lower-cost disk
drives
“State Of The Art” by Stan Augarten: http://smithsonianchips.si.edu/augarten/p20.htm
SRAM 1967 - 64-bit MOS RAM Project (Fairchild)
From: “To the Digital Age” by Rod Bassett page 358
“In April 1967, Fairchild essentially restarted the integrated MOST memory project
now called SAM (Semiconductor Advanced Memory) which was transferred to the
physics department in July 1967. The project was still attempting to build a 64-bit
memory chip, the same density Fairchild R&D had been working on in 1964.
“Monthly Technical Summary Physics,” July 1967, 27, Box 14, Folder 2.” [In the
Stanford Special Collections archives]
SRAM 1968 - 64-bit Bipolar TTL RAM (Fairchild, et al)
Organized 16 words x 4-bits this device was a four times larger version of the
Honeywell/Transitron 16-bit TTL RAM. Packaged in a 16-pin DIP, typical access
time was 60ns. The original vendor was either Fairchild (4103/93403) or TI (7489).
The device was alternate sourced by several companies including AMD (AM 3103).
The 3101 introduced in 1969 was Intel’s first product and the first version to employ
Schottky TTL technology.
SRAM 1968 - Multichip memory projects (CMT, Fairchild, Intel)
- 2 -
The Fairchild SAM project was extended to a multichip configuration to supply a
high density memory system for Burroughs. With SAM now re-designated
Semiconductor Advanced Memory, it involved mounting sixteen 64-bit MOS RAM
chips face down bonded to an 80-lead metallized ceramic substrate. Multiple 1024-bit
packages were then stacked vertically and interconnected to create a semiconductor
memory sub-system. A December 1968 report to Security Analysts includes a
photograph of the SAM package. The project was eventually cancelled due to poor
reliability of the chip attach technology. Tony Holbrook (former president of AMD)
left Fairchild in the early 1970’s to work for Computer Micro-Technology (CMT), a
start-up created to pursue multi-chip memory modules using beam-lead technology.
They failed due to cracking of the beams. In “The Man behind the Microchip” page
180, Leslie Berlin describes Intel’s multi-chip memory effort in 1969; “Intel had no
problem building the individual memory chips but could not reliably attach them to
their ceramic base.” Motorola, TI and other also had a multi-chip memory programs
around the same time.
PROM 1969 – PROM
Based on an earlier development of the diode matrix, Radiation Inc. (later Harris
Semiconductor) developed the first PROM, user programmable by blowing Nichrome
fuses. This device soon became widely popular among computer designers as
a medium for easily loading and debugging and changing “firmware” microcode, the
internal instructions that the CPU uses to decode and execute the external software
instructions that comprise of the operating and applications programs.
CCD 1969 – CCD as Memory
The invention of the CCD was by Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith at BTL in
1969. Later developed into image capture devices at Fairchild by Gil Amelio and Jim
Early, a former BTL employee..
SRAM 1970 - 256-Bit Bipolar TTL RAM and system for Illiac IV (Fairchild)
Based on an earlier test chip created by Wendell Sander, H. T. (Hua-Thye) Chua
designed the 4100 (aka 93400) the first 256-bit bipolar TTL RAM introduced by
Fairchild in 1970. The partially-decoded array of 16 by 16 six-transistor SRAM cells
organized 256 words x 1 bit offered a 100 nsec access time in a 16-pin DIP. This
device was used by a group managed by Rex Rice at Fairchild R & D to build the
Processor Element Memory (PEM) system for the Burroughs Illiac IV supercomputer.
This is believed to be the first mainframe computer to employ semiconductor main
memory.
See: ‘Notes from Interview with Wendell Sander” by Jeff Katz
“State Of The Art” by Stan Augarten: http://smithsonianchips.si.edu/augarten/p24.htm
SRAM 1970 - 256-Bit Bipolar TTL RAM and system for Illiac IV (Fairchild)
Based on an earlier test chip created by Wendell Sander, H. T. (Hua-Thye) Chua
designed the 4100 (aka 93400) the first 256-bit bipolar TTL RAM introduced by
- 3 -
Fairchild in 1970. The partially-decoded array of 16 by 16 six-transistor SRAM cells
organized 256 words x 1 bit offered a 100 nsec access time in a 16-pin DIP. This
device was used by a group managed by Rex Rice at Fairchild R & D to build the
Processor Element Memory (PEM) system for the Burroughs Illiac IV supercomputer.
This is believed to be the first mainframe computer to employ semiconductor main
memory.
See: ‘Notes from Interview with Wendell Sander” by Jeff Katz
“State Of The Art” by Stan Augarten: http://smithsonianchips.si.edu/augarten/p24.htm
DRAM 1970 - First commercial DRAM (Intel 1103)
Intel announced the first commercially successful 1024-bit Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
based on Dennard's dynamic cell concept in 1970. Designed by former Honeywell
engineer William Regitz and Joel Karp, other contributors to the product included cell
improvements by Ted Hoff and Ted Rowe and circuit design assistance by Leslie
Vadasz, Bob Abbott. Product engineer was John Reed. The 1103 was slow and
difficult to make and use but established the viability of low cost semiconductor
memories in computers.
“State Of The Art” by Stan Augarten:
http://smithsonianchips.si.edu/augarten/p26.htm
From: http://www.mpoweruk.com/history.htm
EPROM 1971 - First Erasable PROM (Intel 1702)
Designed by Dov Frohman formerly of Bell Labs, the Intel1702 2048-bit Erasable
Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM) was the first commercial application of
a floating gate technique proposed by Kahng and Sze also of Bell Labs. The first
devices were programmed electrically but required a quartz window package so they
could be erased by exposure to ultra violet light. One Time Programmable (OTP)
versions offered lower cost but could not be erased.
“State Of The Art” by Stan Augarten:
http://smithsonianchips.si.edu/augarten/p32.htm
SRAM 1971 - Fast 256-bit Oxide-Isolated Bipolar TTL RAM (Fairchild 94310)
A 256-bit TTL RAM (93401) was the first device fabricated with an oxide-isolated
(Isoplanar) bipolar process developed by Fairchild. It provided a 50% size reduction
and 30% speed improvement over junction isolation. This technology allowed
Fairchild to dominate the high-performance memory market for many years.
(Electronics March 29, 1971)
SRAM 1972 – Fast 1024-bit Oxide-Isolated TTL and ECL RAMs
(Fairchild 94315, 95415)
SRAM 1972 – Intel 2107 4K ?
DRAM 1973 – First 4K DRAM ?
- 4 -
TI Introduces 22-pin DRAM
DRAM 1973 – 4K DRAM in 16-pin Package
Mostek MK 4096 multiplex addressing allowed a small package (16-pin) size and
established Mostek as a world leader in dynamic RAMs in terms of volume
production and also as a design innovator. The "official" pinout for the 4K DRAM
generation was 22-pins. However, the MK4096 4K DRAM featured multiplexed
addresses that permitted space-saving 16-pin packaging. For over a year, the industry
seemed uncertain as to which design would become standard. Mostek fellow Bob
Proebsting, who invented and developed the multiplexed address concept, comments
that even though more and more customers were endorsing Mostek's smaller 16-pin
design, the trade press continued to refer to our pinout as "the maverick 4K package."
Eventually, the Mostek pin configuration did become the industry standard, not only
for 4K DRAMs, but also for the next three generations of DRAMs - the 16K DRAMs,
the 64K DRAMs and even the 256K DRAMs The MK4096 4KRAM included other
noteworthy design innovations, such as a sense amplifier design and a clock generator
design - and others -which allowed the MK4096 to consume less than half the power
of competitive circuits
http://www.mindspring.com/~mary.hall/mosteklives/history/15Ann/MostekFirsts.html
EPROM 1974 – 8K N-Channel EPROM
Intel 2708, developed by George Perlegos, to complement the newly introduced NChannel
8080 microprocessor.
DRAM 1974 - First 4K - bit DRAM with 1T Cell
[http://www.icknowledge.com/history/history.html]
The 4Kbit DRAM introduced the 1 transistor cell and the silicon gate NMOS process.
The 3T to 1T memory cell transition is the first major DRAM transition. The silicon
gate NMOS process required 6 masks and had 8µm minimum features. The resulting
product had a 1,280µm2 memory cell size, a die size of approximately 15mm2
and
sold for around $18 at introduction.
DRAM 1976 - 16K - bit DRAM introduced
[http://www.icknowledge.com/history/history.html]
The 16Kbit DRAM introduced dual polysilicon layers allowing more efficient
memory cell layout. The single to dual polysilicon layer transition is the second major
DRAM transition. The dual polysilicon NMOS process required 7 masks and had
5µm minimum features. The resulting product had a 500µm2
memory cell size, a die
size of approximately 19mm2
and sold for around $33 at introduction.
DRAM 1976 - Mostek 16K
http://smithsonianchips.si.edu/augarten/p50.htm
- 5 -
EPROM 1976 – Intel 2716 – first 5-voly only EPROM
Developed by George Perlegos, this device complemented the 5-voly only 8085
microprocessor. It was the first EPROM to incorporate an on-chip charge-pump to
develop the required high voltages for programming the device without a separate
power supply voltage input. I greatly simplified microprocessor-based system design
and manufacturing.
DRAM 1977 - The First 65,536-Bit (64K) Dynamic RAM (IBM)
http://smithsonianchips.si.edu/augarten/p56.htm
DRAM 1979 - 64K-bit DRAM introduced
[http://www.icknowledge.com/history/history.html]
The 64Kbit DRAM was produced on a dual polysilicon NMOS process requiring 8 to
10 masks and had 3µm minimum features. The resulting product had a 180µm2
memory cell size, a die size of approximately 31mm2
and sold for around $47 at
introduction
DRAM 1980 - One of the Most Popular 65,536-Bit (64K) Dynamic RAMs
http://smithsonianchips.si.edu/augarten/p64.htm
DRAM 1981 - The First 294,912-Bit (288K) Dynamic RAM
http://smithsonianchips.si.edu/augarten/p66.htm
DRAM 1982 - 256K-bit DRAM
[http://www.icknowledge.com/history/history.html]
Initially, the 256Kbit DRAM was produced on a dual polysilicon NMOS process
requiring 8 to 10 masks and had 2µm minimum features. The resulting product had a
70µm2
memory cell size, a die size of approximately 45mm2
and sold for around $51
at introduction. Later versions converted to CMOS with 1.5µm features.
DRAM 1983 - 1st CMOS DRAM
[http://www.icknowledge.com/history/history.html]
Intel develops a 1Mbit CMOS DRAM, the 1st CMOS DRAM. Ironically Intel soon
exits the DRAM business.
EEPROM 1983 - EEPROM Invented
16Kbit EEPROMs introduced based on the floating gate and MNOS
Reference: WG. Groeseneken, H.E. Maes, J. Van Houdt, and J.S. Witters, "Basics of
Nonvolatile Semiconductor Memory," in William D. Brown and Joe E. Brewer Eds.
"Nonvolatile Semiconductor Memory Technology", IEEE Press (1998). [Found at:
http://www.icknowledge.com/history/history.html]
FLASH 1984 - Flash memory invented by Fujio Masuoka of Toshiba
Fujio Masuoka of Toshiba disclosed at IEDM the invention of a Flash, a form of
Electrically-Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM) that allows
multiple memory locations to be erased or written in one programming operation, at
- 6 -
Toshiba in 1984. It uses floating gate construction and depends on quantum tunneling
effects induced by relatively high voltages for both writing and erasing. The
architecture also required only a single transistor per memory cell rather than 2
transistors per cell the way standard EEPROM did. Flash memory is commonly used
in USB memory sticks.
“Fujio Masuoka: Thanks For The Memory”
http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/06_14/b3978021.htm
FLASH 1985 - Commercial Flash memory introduced
[http://www.icknowledge.com/history/history.html]
Toshiba introduces a 256Kbit flash memory chip.
FLASH 1986 - ETOX style Flash introduce
256Kbit introduced by Intel. ETOX is the most common style of Flash today.
Reference: Manzur Gill and Stefan Lai, "Floating Gate Flash Memories," in William
D. Brown and Joe E. Brewer Eds. "Nonvolatile Semiconductor Memory Technology",
IEEE Press (1998). [Found at: http://www.icknowledge.com/history/history.html]
DRAM 1986 - 1M-bit DRAM
The 1Mbit DRAM introduced the use of non-planar DRAM memory cells such as
stacked or trench cells, although some planar cells were also produced. The transition
from a planar to a non planar cell is the third major DRAM transition. The 1Mbit
DRAM was produced on a CMOS process requiring approximately 18 masks with 2
to 3 polysilicon layers and 1.2µm minimum features. The resulting product had a
25µm2
memory cell size, a die size of approximately 70mm2
and sold for around $100
at introduction.
[Found at: http://www.icknowledge.com/history/1980s.html]
DRAM 1988 - 4M-bit DRAM
[http://www.icknowledge.com/history/history.html]
The 4Mbit DRAM was produced on a CMOS process requiring 20 to 25 masks, with
2 to 3 polysilicon layers, 2 metal layers and 0.8µm minimum features. All 4Mbit
memory was produced with a stacked or trenched cell, 1Mbit DRAM was the end of
the planar cell. The resulting product had a 12µm2
memory cell size, a die size of
approximately 95mm2
and sold for around $124 at introduction. Later versions
utilized smaller line widths to shrink the die.
[Found at: http://www.icknowledge.com/history/1990s.html]
1991 - 16M-bit DRAM
The 16Mbit DRAM was produced on a CMOS process with 3 to 4 polysilicon layers,
2 metal layers and 0.5µm minimum features. The resulting product had a 4.2µm2
memory cell size, a die size of approximately 130mm2
and sold for around $275 at
introduction. Later versions utilized smaller line widths to shrink the die.
[Found at: http://www.icknowledge.com/history/1990s.html]
1994 - 64M-bit DRAM
The 64Mbit DRAM was produced on a CMOS process with 3 to 5 polysilicon layers,
2 to 3 metal layers and 0.35µm minimum features. The resulting product had a
1.5µm2
memory cell size, a die size of approximately 170mm2
and sold for around
- 7 -
$575 at introduction. Later versions utilized smaller line widths to shrink the die.
[Found at: http://www.icknowledge.com/history/1990s.html]
1998 - 256M-bit DRAM
The 256Mbit DRAM was produced on a CMOS process with 4 to 5 polysilicon
layers, 2 to 3 metal layers and 0.25µm minimum features. The 256Mbit DRAM
introduced the use of high-k dielectrics, although many parts are also produced
without high-k, high-k dielectric represents the fourth major DRAM transition. The
resulting product had a die size of approximately 204mm2
and sold for around $575 at
introduction. Later versions utilized smaller line widths to shrink the die
[Found at: http://www.icknowledge.com/history/1990s.html]
- 8 -
Sharing your Family History Data via CD-ROM
Records kept in only one place are at risk. My wife has a passion for taking photos - but
when you ask about pictures of her as a child, you run into an event that happened June 5,
1976 – when the Teton Dam burst above Rexburg, Idaho. Many of my in-laws’ photos
and keepsakes were stored in the basement and lost in the flood. Could this happen to
you? The only certain way to preserve records is to have multiple copies made and share
them, so that the loss of a single copy will not be a disaster.
In the past, copying genealogy, photos, and records was laborious -- endless expensive
hours at the copy machine; copies of copies became harder and harder to read, and lots of
time the recipient of the copies was left with a formidable stack of unorganized paper.
This changed tremendously with the wide use of personal computers. Duplicating
GEDCOM data became a snap, and cousins began exchanging floppy disks of
genealogical data. (This sometimes caused its own problem, the proliferation of multiple
versions of data, and the well-known merge hassle.)
Since then, our genealogical records have often outgrown what can fit on a floppy disk,
and people are exploring other storage media -- with the CDROM being one of the most
popular. Whereas a floppy disk holds a little more than a megabyte, a CDROM can hold
650-700 Mb. This means that one CD is equivalent to about 500 floppies or a stack about
five feet tall! With increased capacity, the possibilities of what you can store are much
greater. In particular, people are scanning in photographs and source documents and
entering histories.
Nowadays, the problem is not too little space to store information, but rather too little
organization of the information stored. The following is an examination of some of the
techniques you can use to make that CDROM copy of your genealogy more useful.
Hardware
First, it is assumed that you have a CD writer. Costs for a new drive are about $50, with
speeds going up and prices coming down all the time. Most equipment is capable of
creating both CD-R, or write once, and CD-RW or re-writeable CDs. The “write-once”
kind are cheaper, the re-writeable let you make a mistake and correct it. When you are
experimenting with new equipment or with a new organization of data, you can generate
a CD-RW and erase it if you decide that you don’t like the way it turned out. When you
make a mistake in the creation of a CD-R, you throw it away and make a new one. On the
other hand, the cost of a blank CD-R nowadays is about 25 cents, so ruining one is not a
very expensive mistake. The disadvantage of using a CD-RW is that they are typically
slower to write, they are a little more expensive, and there is a limit to the number of
times they can be re-used. In the following discussion we will not distinguish between
CD-R and CD-RW; you should probably experiment a little with both and use whichever
is more to your liking.
Software
There are a number of programs you can use to create a CD, some come free with the
drive and some you can buy at an office-supply store. One of the common ones is
Adaptec’s EZ CD Creator. The directions here are for EZ CD Creator, but other software
packages will be similar. Here again, the key is to experiment with your software until
you become comfortable with it. One thing you should know is that this type of program
does not like to share your computer. If you buy a new one, be sure to uninstall the old
one first, or they will often fight over who gets to control your machine!
The first step in creating a CD is to gather the files you want to include into a working
directory. Keep in mind the size limits of the CD and don’t try to squeeze too much on
one disk. Although some CDs will hold more – up to 800 Meg – you are safer to err on
the conservative side and limit your files to 700 or even 650 Meg. Failure to observe
this precaution can result in a CD that won’t read on some drives.
For now we assume that you simply copy all the files into one large directory. Later, we
will talk about ways to organize them so that it is easier to find what you have saved.
Starting the CD-creation program is not hard; in many cases, it will automatically run
when you insert a blank disk in the drive. If the program doesn’t start when you insert a
blank CD, you may need to click on a desktop icon or choose the program from the
START menu. The dialog you see varies from one program to another, but generally you
will be asked if you want to create a music CD or a data CD. Music disks are outside of
this discussion – choose the “data CD” option.
Next, you need to tell the CD-Writer what files you want to include on the CD. Drag
your working folder into the lower window of the CD layout window.
The last step is to push the ‘Create CD’ button and wait for the CD to burn. Depending
on the amount of information you put on the disk and the speed of the drive, this can take
from five minutes to a half-hour.
As a final check you should always take the CD to a different computer and see if your
files can be read. You should especially check for compatibility if you want to share files
between computers that have different operating systems; DOS and Win95 can’t read
some of the CDs that Windows 2000 and XP can read, while Macintosh and Linux
computers have their own limitations. If you want to share your CDs with others, you
should watch out for what format the CD writer uses.
CD-Formats
CDs can be created in many formats. If you are only making CDs for your own use, the
format you use is not so critical; but if you want to share your data with family members
you need to check with them to see what format their machines require. You should
experiment a little with different formats to see which ones work best. The most
common formats on the PC are ISO-9660, Joliet and UDF, while Macintosh computers
generally use HFS and Hybrid formats. Linux computers also use ISO-9660, sometimes
with the Rock Ridge extensions.
The most widely-accepted CD format is called ISO-9660. This format can be read by
Windows, DOS, Macintosh, and Unix computers without difficulty. However, file names
are limited to 8 characters with a 3 character extension (8.3), letters A to Z, digits 0 to 9
and the underscore symbol ( _ ). Spaces are not allowed. It can be frustrating when a file
named “Henry Hendricks Genealogy.doc” gets converted to “HENRYHEN.DOC” on the
CD. This can be especially annoying when you have created web pages with links from
one file to another – the links are broken if the filename is changed. To overcome this
“8.3” limitation, an extended version of ISO-9660 format is very popular, called “Joliet”.
Joliet format allows spaces, punctuation, and upper and lower case letters in file names,
as well as letters with foreign characters. It can be read on PCs with Windows 95 or
later, and on Macintosh computers running the Joliet Volume Access extension. The
Joliet format allows filenames up to 64 characters long, but Macs will not read Joliet file
names longer than 31 characters. Macintosh computers may also fail to read filenames
that have spaces in them, as well as names with more than one period or other
punctuation. Experiment, and name your files accordingly.
I haven’t had much experience with HFS, Hybrid, or RockRidge formats. If your CD
burner provides these options, and you think that using them will help you share your
CDs with a wider audience, you may wish to experiment with them. One format that
many new PCs have is UDF or Universal Data Format. This is the format used by DVDs
and by some special CD drivers that let you treat the disk like a large floppy disk.
However, older systems and most Macintosh computers will not be able to read UDF
format. You may find that your CDs work fine on your home computer, but are useless
when you visit the Family History Library, for instance. UDF will probably be
widespread in the future, but you should be careful in using it right now.
Finally, the CD writer may offer you the choice between Mode 1 and Mode 2. Mode 1 is
the ideal format for all PC data CDs. This format has built in error-correction and higher
requirements for verification during duplication. Mode 2 is normally reserved for Audio
& Video Files. You should check your Options/Preferences to see how the CD-writer is
configured, and set it to Mode 1.
More information on CD formats can be found on the Internet at sites like the following:
http://www.iath.virginia.edu/~cj8n/doc/burnit/
Organizing the Data
There are many ways to organize the files that you put on the CD. Perhaps the simplest
is to simply copy everything into one directory and burn that disk. This does meet the
initial goal of sharing your files; giving others access to your records and protecting
yourself against catastrophic loss. However, it isn’t the easiest way for your cousins to
use your information. I have received several CDs made this way. You open the
directory and see a display like the following:
One such CD had about 2000 pictures, 500 of them with names like “1.jpg”, “2.jpg”, etc.
It’s great to get copies of the information, but it does take a long time to sift through it so
you can get what you need out of it.
There are two very simple things you can do to make the CD easier to use. The first is to
create different folders with names to describe the files. The 2000 picture CD I
mentioned earlier also had more than 80 different sub-folders for most of the pictures,
with descriptive names for the groupings and for the images.
Notice the names of the directories and the files are fairly self-explanatory, giving both a
description and a general time-frame for the pictures. The down-side to all this is that the
CD may not be useable on some computers. DOS, Macintosh, and Linux computers may
all have difficulty reading some of the files because of the spaces and the parentheses in
the names. A different cousin gave me the following CD:
This disk consists of 135 graphics files with rather cryptic names. However, there is one
more file on the disk that consists of an index. This is a text file with lines such as the
following:
hen24c.tif - John and Lucinda H. Cooper and Family, Josiah, Lucille and Lindell
hen42.tif - Hyrum S. Hendricks 5 Dec 1883 - 15 Jan 1929 and Clara Felk born
29 Oct 1892 - Their son, Donald Ray Hendricks 2/c K. Div. U. S. S. Wake Island -
Hyrum abt. 1905
hen32c.tif - John H. Hendricks in Marysville Band
Every file on the disk is thus identified with a full description, including the individuals
in the picture, as well as dates and places where known. By means of this index, I was
able to reconstruct the original format of the information, which turned out to be a Book
of Remembrance containing old photos of many of my ancestors, going back five
generations.
So, the two simple things you can do to organize a large collection of files are (1) put the
files in a directory structure with names that identify the contents and (2) include an
index file that describes the contents in detail.
Making the Data Accessible to Novices
While most in this group will have no trouble using a CD full of GIFs, TIFs, JPGs,
PAFs, GEDs, and DOCs, there are many computer users who would be a little
intimidated by it. How do we make it easier for Aunt Mary to use the information we
have acquired? She is the one who gave us most of the information in the first place!
We can take a clue from the World Wide Web, and generate some simple web pages that
provide point-and-click access to the information. This is actually not very hard to do!
First, you should take advantage of tools that already can generate web pages for you.
GEDCOM Data to Web pages
Your genealogy program is probably able to take your genealogy and create a host of
different web pages. The following shows the option in PAF 5 that does this.
The CD should include the GEDCOM files so that other genealogists can profit from
your work, but converting the data to web format makes it accessible to others, as well.
The following shows some of the options that PAF 5 gives you in generating web pages.
If you have histories saved in your notes, and have included photographs, the result can
be very interesting. You might want to experiment with different options.
Once you have a sub-directory full of web pages depicting your genealogy, copy it into
your CD image.
Family Histories to PDF Files
Family Histories can be found in a variety of formats, written in simple text files, or
nicely formatted in WordPerfect or Microsoft Word, or what have you. Unfortunately,
although you may have the text looking just perfect in your word processor, when you
give it to me it may be meaningless because I don’t have the same system. One way to
make your family histories more accessible to everyone is to convert them to PDF
format.
PDF format is a standard file format that tells exactly how text and images are to appear
on the printed page. Some word processors can create PDF files directly, with others you
can generate it through a program called PDF995. With this program, you “print” your
document to a pseudo-printer that saves the image and converts it into a PDF file. This
file can then be included on your CD, and read with the Adobe Acrobat Reader. Acrobat
Reader is available for a wide variety of operating system, so even though you originally
wrote Grandma’s history on a Windows computer, using WordPerfect, your cousin can
read it on her Macintosh computer using Acrobat Reader.
Pictures to Albums
More and more genealogy programs let you mix photos into your data, with pleasing
results. But what if you just want to share a collection of pictures, without linking them
into the genealogy? You can just put them into their own directory and let the recipient
try to figure out what to do with them, but a program named JALBUM lets you create a
web page photo album that is much nicer.
JALBUM runs on a wide variety of operating systems, and it generates web pages for the
internet, or for the local hard drive. It has a very simple user interface, and it works very
quickly. The main thing you tell it is the name of the directory where the pictures are,
and the directory where you want the web pages placed. In addition, you can choose to
customize a few details about the image sizes and placement, but initially you will
probably want to use the default settings. The result is a very quick photo album.
JALBUM lets you create a specific “look” with a customized skin, or you can simply edit
the HTML code that it creates to get the look that you want.
Provide Programs – save the download
You might consider putting some programs on the CD along with all the data you have
gathered. For instance, that Acrobat Reader that is so easy to get – requires a few
minutes to find on the Internet and download. Wouldn’t it be nice if you just included a
copy of the download on the CD and let Uncle Fred install it from there? And what about
PAF itself? The Church allows you to copy it for incidental, non-commercial, church or
home use. As long as your CD is only intended to be passed around among family
members, there should be no problem in saving Cousin Edna the hassle of a two-hour
download on her modem when you can just give her the file directly. Be very careful in
what programs you include on your CD, giving credit to the creators and don’t violate
anybody’s trademark or license agreement.
Organizing the CD into Sections
Earlier, we discussed the problem of organizing a large number of photographs by putting
them into different directories based on dates, events, or individuals. We have a similar
potential problem when a CD contains a mixture of programs, photos, histories, and
genealogy data. I have found it helpful to organize my genealogy CDs in a structure like
the following:
G:\MYCD
,167$//
,1752
%,1
,1)2
&223(5B)AMILY
*('&20
3$)DATA
:(%
+,6725<
3,&785(6
&2//,1*6B)$0,/<
*('&20
3$)DATA
:(%
+,6725<
3,&785(6
This structure should be customized according to your needs. You may include some
sound files or even video files on the disk – should they go into their own directory? The
WEB directory will have sub-directories under it, and the PICTURES directory may need
to be divided into GROUP photos, INDIVIDUALS, and perhaps OTHERS – if you have
a lot of pictures of the family homestead, or the first car that Grandpa owned. You
should decide whether to provide PAF files in PAF 4 format, PAF 5 format, or all of the
above. If you use LEGACY or another genealogy program, you may wish to create a
directory for those data files, as well.
I like to put program files like the Acrobat Reader into the INSTALL directory, and
information that isn’t specific to individual families into the INFO directory. By
separating out the different family lines into their own directories I can quickly make one
CD that is interesting to my brothers and sisters, and another CD that my cousins on my
mother’s side will enjoy.
And what goes in the INTRO section?
Tying It All Together
We have talked about how to create the different sections of the CD, but you need to have
some way to explain to the recipient what the overall scheme is – and how to make use of
it. I like having a single web page at the beginning that introduces the CD and explains
what the different sections are. Creating a web page doesn’t have to be all that difficult.
You can create web pages with Netscape (free), or Microsoft FrontPage ($150) or
Macromedia Dreamweaver ($275), to mention a few. You can format your information
with WordPerfect or Microsoft Word and use them to generate web pages. Or you can
do what I do, and just create the HTML code directly. The following shows a very
simple web page, with one hyperlink to a text file:
TEST.TXT
You create this file with an editor like Notepad or Wordpad, or even a word processor, but you must be careful to save the file as ASCII text. Give the file an HTM or HTML extension and Windows will recognize it as a web page. Clicking on the file should display something like the following: TEST.TXT If you have a file called “test.txt” in the same directory, you can click on the link and display that file in your browser. You can link to pictures, PDF files, program files, and other HTML files. I like to have at least one HTML file in every directory on my disk, explaining what is in that directory, and then an HTML file in the root of the disk that explains what all the directories are for, linking to the indexes in each one. For instance, we could expand our example to the following: Welcome to our Family History CD!
General Information
Useful Programs
Cooper Family
Collings Family
which would make our browser display the following: Welcome to our Family History CD! General Information Useful Programs Cooper Family Collings Family You can get much more elegant if you want. There are special codes (HTML calls them ‘tags’) to create a heading, to set text in bold, italics, or underline and more. A GOOGLE search for “HTML TUTORIAL” returns over a million hits, and the first ones include “Introduction to HTML,” “WRITING HTML,” “HTML: An Interactive Tutorial for Beginners [ Dave's HTML Guide ],” “NCSA -- A Beginner's Guide to HTML,” and so on. Most of these introductions give you a quick overview of writing HTML that is easy to follow. Again, experimentation is the key to understanding. You can also put pictures in your HTML code, and even make it so that clicking on different parts of the picture will cause different links to activate. I used a tool called GEOHTML to do this part of the HTML code; another program that does a similar thing is called MAP THIS!. AutoRun For me, the last step of creating the CD was to get my introductory page to automatically appear when the CD is inserted into the drive. I didn’t want to have to write a note telling the recipient to open the CD in Windows and click on the first file. This is where AutoRun comes in. AutoRun is a feature of Windows operating systems, starting with Windows 95 and on, that allows a CD to automatically run an application when it is inserted in the drive. This feature is enabled by creating a text file named AUTORUN.INF in the root directory of your CD that looks something like the following: [autorun] open=bin\shelexec.exe index.htm icon=FamCD.ico On the line that starts with “OPEN” you put the name of a program that you want to run when the disk is inserted. Web pages are not programs, so you can’t put the name of the starting web page (like INDEX.HTM) there, and you can’t be guaranteed that whoever gets your disk will have either Internet Explorer or Netscape, or whatever browser you generally use. The Windows program SHELEXEC.EXE, however, can find out which browser you use, and will start up your web page with that program. I generally put SHELEXEC in the BIN directory, together with other programs that need to run from the disk, like GENVIEWER. Making CDs in Volume: Once the CD is organized and ‘burned,’ you will probably want to duplicate it so you can share it with relatives. If you are making a small quantity (10 or less) this is not too hard to do, one-at-a-time. If you want to make copies to hand out at a large family reunion and need fifty or a hundred or more, you may want to check out the services of a CD duplication service. Some copy centers can do this for you, or they can recommend places that can. You may be fortunate enough to know someone who has access to a CD duplication machine at work. These are expensive gadgets that take a hopper-full of blank CDs and make copies of your disk two, four, or eight at a time. They can greatly cut down the time needed to create a large number of disks. If you have to do them one at a time, at least get a fast machine! The costs can vary widely, depending on whether you can hit a sale on the blank CDs. Other items you should price out are labels, jewel cases, mailers, and postage. A duplication service might be able to print labels on the disks for you, but there will be a minimum charge. Instead of adhesive labels, you might be able to make do with a simple rubber stamp. Sources of Useful Files So, where do you get all these files that have been mentioned? On the Internet, of course! The first key is to recognize that if you need something to put your CD together, likely someone else has needed it as well, and may have put it out on the web. All you have to do is describe it in general terms in a search engine like GOOGLE, and like magic, it appears! The following sources are ones that I have checked out. Software that may be helpful in producing your CD: 1. PDF995: http://www.pdf995.com/. This program lets you create PDF format files by simply ‘printing’ them from your word processor or other program to a pseudo-printer. PDF995 then asks you for the name of a file, and generates a PDF file with your output. The software is free to use, but every time you create a new PDF file it displays an advertisement. If you pay $9.95 and register the software, it no longer displays the ads. 2. JALBUM: http://www.datadosen.se/jalbum/ JAlbum takes a collection of photographs and generates the HTML code to display them in a photo album. It is capable of generating a variety of formats; you might take its web pages and modify it with your own customizations, or use it as-is. 3. GeoHTML: http://www.fegi.ru/geohtml/ This program helps you create clickable images in your web pages (called ‘maps’). Somewhat advanced to use, but not too far out of reach. 4. MapThis: http://www.zoniez.com/Newbie/mapthis/mapthis.html. This is another program to create clickable maps. I haven’t used it, but it is very popular. 5. SHELEXEC: http://www.codeproject.com/system/shelexec.asp This is the program that you name in the AUTORUN.INF file to make your starting HTML page appear on CD insertion. Software you may want to include on your family CD: 1. PAF 5.2: http://www.ldscatalog.com/. I downloaded PAF and included a copy of it in my family CD so that my cousins would not have to. The software license states: “You may only copy and use the Software for incidental, noncommercial church or home use. Other uses require the written permission of the Licensor. You may not sell, rent or sublicense the Software, or repackage the Software for resale.” I found that it was effective to give my family CD away – to family members who paid their dues. The cost of the CD, including shipping, was only a few dollars, and the family organization charges $10 for dues. 2. GENVIEWER: http://www.mudcreek.ca/. GENVIEWER is a program that lets you browse PAF or GEDCOM files. There is a free CD-only version that lets you view your genealogy data (.GED or .PAF files on the CD) without having to install PAF or another program. There is also a shareware version that requires a small charge to register. 3. Adobe Acrobat Reader: http://www.adobe.com/. The standard PDF viewer. 4. Legacy Family Tree: http://www.legacyfamilytree.com/ Legacy is a worthy replacement for PAF. It has a number of areas where it has more or better functionality than PAF; in addition, they offer the older version (3.0) as a free download. The latest version, 4.0, is very reasonably priced
You create this file with an editor like Notepad or Wordpad, or even a word processor, but you must be careful to save the file as ASCII text. Give the file an HTM or HTML extension and Windows will recognize it as a web page. Clicking on the file should display something like the following: TEST.TXT If you have a file called “test.txt” in the same directory, you can click on the link and display that file in your browser. You can link to pictures, PDF files, program files, and other HTML files. I like to have at least one HTML file in every directory on my disk, explaining what is in that directory, and then an HTML file in the root of the disk that explains what all the directories are for, linking to the indexes in each one. For instance, we could expand our example to the following: Welcome to our Family History CD!
General Information
Useful Programs
Cooper Family
Collings Family
which would make our browser display the following: Welcome to our Family History CD! General Information Useful Programs Cooper Family Collings Family You can get much more elegant if you want. There are special codes (HTML calls them ‘tags’) to create a heading, to set text in bold, italics, or underline and more. A GOOGLE search for “HTML TUTORIAL” returns over a million hits, and the first ones include “Introduction to HTML,” “WRITING HTML,” “HTML: An Interactive Tutorial for Beginners [ Dave's HTML Guide ],” “NCSA -- A Beginner's Guide to HTML,” and so on. Most of these introductions give you a quick overview of writing HTML that is easy to follow. Again, experimentation is the key to understanding. You can also put pictures in your HTML code, and even make it so that clicking on different parts of the picture will cause different links to activate. I used a tool called GEOHTML to do this part of the HTML code; another program that does a similar thing is called MAP THIS!. AutoRun For me, the last step of creating the CD was to get my introductory page to automatically appear when the CD is inserted into the drive. I didn’t want to have to write a note telling the recipient to open the CD in Windows and click on the first file. This is where AutoRun comes in. AutoRun is a feature of Windows operating systems, starting with Windows 95 and on, that allows a CD to automatically run an application when it is inserted in the drive. This feature is enabled by creating a text file named AUTORUN.INF in the root directory of your CD that looks something like the following: [autorun] open=bin\shelexec.exe index.htm icon=FamCD.ico On the line that starts with “OPEN” you put the name of a program that you want to run when the disk is inserted. Web pages are not programs, so you can’t put the name of the starting web page (like INDEX.HTM) there, and you can’t be guaranteed that whoever gets your disk will have either Internet Explorer or Netscape, or whatever browser you generally use. The Windows program SHELEXEC.EXE, however, can find out which browser you use, and will start up your web page with that program. I generally put SHELEXEC in the BIN directory, together with other programs that need to run from the disk, like GENVIEWER. Making CDs in Volume: Once the CD is organized and ‘burned,’ you will probably want to duplicate it so you can share it with relatives. If you are making a small quantity (10 or less) this is not too hard to do, one-at-a-time. If you want to make copies to hand out at a large family reunion and need fifty or a hundred or more, you may want to check out the services of a CD duplication service. Some copy centers can do this for you, or they can recommend places that can. You may be fortunate enough to know someone who has access to a CD duplication machine at work. These are expensive gadgets that take a hopper-full of blank CDs and make copies of your disk two, four, or eight at a time. They can greatly cut down the time needed to create a large number of disks. If you have to do them one at a time, at least get a fast machine! The costs can vary widely, depending on whether you can hit a sale on the blank CDs. Other items you should price out are labels, jewel cases, mailers, and postage. A duplication service might be able to print labels on the disks for you, but there will be a minimum charge. Instead of adhesive labels, you might be able to make do with a simple rubber stamp. Sources of Useful Files So, where do you get all these files that have been mentioned? On the Internet, of course! The first key is to recognize that if you need something to put your CD together, likely someone else has needed it as well, and may have put it out on the web. All you have to do is describe it in general terms in a search engine like GOOGLE, and like magic, it appears! The following sources are ones that I have checked out. Software that may be helpful in producing your CD: 1. PDF995: http://www.pdf995.com/. This program lets you create PDF format files by simply ‘printing’ them from your word processor or other program to a pseudo-printer. PDF995 then asks you for the name of a file, and generates a PDF file with your output. The software is free to use, but every time you create a new PDF file it displays an advertisement. If you pay $9.95 and register the software, it no longer displays the ads. 2. JALBUM: http://www.datadosen.se/jalbum/ JAlbum takes a collection of photographs and generates the HTML code to display them in a photo album. It is capable of generating a variety of formats; you might take its web pages and modify it with your own customizations, or use it as-is. 3. GeoHTML: http://www.fegi.ru/geohtml/ This program helps you create clickable images in your web pages (called ‘maps’). Somewhat advanced to use, but not too far out of reach. 4. MapThis: http://www.zoniez.com/Newbie/mapthis/mapthis.html. This is another program to create clickable maps. I haven’t used it, but it is very popular. 5. SHELEXEC: http://www.codeproject.com/system/shelexec.asp This is the program that you name in the AUTORUN.INF file to make your starting HTML page appear on CD insertion. Software you may want to include on your family CD: 1. PAF 5.2: http://www.ldscatalog.com/. I downloaded PAF and included a copy of it in my family CD so that my cousins would not have to. The software license states: “You may only copy and use the Software for incidental, noncommercial church or home use. Other uses require the written permission of the Licensor. You may not sell, rent or sublicense the Software, or repackage the Software for resale.” I found that it was effective to give my family CD away – to family members who paid their dues. The cost of the CD, including shipping, was only a few dollars, and the family organization charges $10 for dues. 2. GENVIEWER: http://www.mudcreek.ca/. GENVIEWER is a program that lets you browse PAF or GEDCOM files. There is a free CD-only version that lets you view your genealogy data (.GED or .PAF files on the CD) without having to install PAF or another program. There is also a shareware version that requires a small charge to register. 3. Adobe Acrobat Reader: http://www.adobe.com/. The standard PDF viewer. 4. Legacy Family Tree: http://www.legacyfamilytree.com/ Legacy is a worthy replacement for PAF. It has a number of areas where it has more or better functionality than PAF; in addition, they offer the older version (3.0) as a free download. The latest version, 4.0, is very reasonably priced
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)